wuxi biologics salary

[70]. E [136]. This change resulted in 86 percent of drug approval applications from Chinese companies being withdrawn. The sector, along with medical devices, performed $111.8 billion of R&D in 2016 (the most recent year for which public data is available), of which $85.9 billion was self-funded. It’s possible this could lead China to approach the industry with innovation-supporting, rather than innovation-distorting, policies. This is why the United States remains the predominant powerhouse of drug discovery and production, ranking first in nearly all measures of innovation. Biotechnology Industry Association, USTR 301 Filing, 2019, 25. Whereas less than 10 percent of new drugs were first introduced in the United States in the 1980s, by the 2010s, more than 60 percent of new drugs were first introduced in the United States. [132] Since the global financial crisis, the Chinese government has moved aggressively to stimulate capital investment that will strengthen its competitive position, both domestically and in global markets. From 2011 to 2015, China ranked second in the world behind the United States in international biomedical publications. Joshua New, “The Promise of Data Driven Drug Development,” (Center for Data Innovation, report forthcoming). Congressional-Executive Commission on China, “China’s Working Party Report” (November 2011), 49, http://www.cecc.gov/pages/selectLaws/WTOimpact/wkptrptPRCWTO.php; Atkinson, Enough is Enough, 13. If China were to employ fair and legitimate policies to grow its domestic life-sciences industry, it would create direct competition for U.S. workers, as Chinese employment in the industry would grow while U.S. industry employment would shrink—at least its global share (see table 1). Squire Patton Boggs “ Guideline on Outbound Investment Promulgated by State Council of China on August 18, 2017,”(August 2017), https://www.squirepattonboggs.com/~/media/files/insights/publications/2017/08/guideline-on-outbound-investment-promulgated-by-state-council-of-china-on-august-18-2017/guideline-on-outbound-investment-promulgated-by-state-council-of-china.pdf. In addition, generic drugs need to show therapeutic equivalence to original drugs. [209], In addition, while Chinese investment in the United States and European Union fell significantly between 2016 and 2018, according to the Rhodium group, acquisitions of Chinse firms in the health and biotechnology sector have expanded in both places. Some have argued this was in order to give a domestic pneumococcal vaccine more time to be developed free from competition. Robert D. Atkinson is the founder and president of the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. [250]. [110]. 10, vol. Sci China Life Science, vol.59, no.10, October (2016):1078. This means that the United States needs to keep in place the right policies and make them even stronger while at the same time continuing to press China to roll back its innovation mercantilist practices in this industry. [47]. David M. Hart, “To Build a battery Industry, New York Needs Help from Washington” (Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, February 2018), https://itif.org/publications/2018/02/06/build-battery-industry-new-york-needs-help-washington. [5] Of the total research performed, $79.4 billion was invested in the United States. To advance its goal of significant expansion of its biopharma firms and output, China has made a number of policy changes in the last few years, including changing drug regulation, drug pricing, and IP protection; spurring VC investment, pursuing FDI; and supporting expansion of core industry inputs, including skills, data and R&D. European Commission and WHO, “China policies to promote local production of pharmaceutical products and protect public health,” 26. M Construction of public technology service platform: build a large-scale biological resource pool and the core platform of the biological information center, build a networked national biological resources and biological information service facilities, strengthen the deep exploration of genetic information, and promote the development of new sequencers. O For example, in 2012, there were 1,272 applications for approval for generic drugs, with over 60 percent of them being submitted by different companies more than 20 times each. Fair and legitimate policies are those that generally abide by the letter and the spirt of the WTO, including nondiscrimination between domestic and foreign firms; not tying domestic market access to certain behaviors (e.g., technology transfer, joint ventures, etc. [82] Chinese firms even produce and sell technology to allow consumers around the world to circumvent encryption protection so they can pirate video games. Eric Rosenbaum, “1 in 5 corporations say China has stolen their IP within the last year: CNBC CFO survey,” CNBC, March 1, 2019, https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/28/1-in-5-companies-say-china-stole-their-ip-within-the-last-year-cnbc.html. Jason Green, “Former Genentech employees charged with trade-secret theft,” The Mercury News, October 31, 2018, https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/10/30/former-genentech-employees-charged-with-trade-secret-theft/. [234] Another study estimated 6,000 generics producers.[235]. For example, until 2017, the Chinese Food and Drug Administration (now the National Medical Products Administration, NMPA) had a multiyear backlog of new drugs awaiting approval. [127] And despite China having “clarified and underscored … that it agreed that enterprises are free to base technology transfer decisions on business and market considerations,” at a December 2014 meeting of the United States-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade, USTR noted that China had “announced two measures relating to [local procurement of] information technology equipment used in the banking services sector and in providing Internet- or telecommunications-based services more generally.”[128]. [110] However, China routinely requires firms to transfer technology in exchange for being granted the ability to invest, operate, or sell in China. Strong intellectual property protection is key to innovation in the biopharmaceutical industry. [106], FDI acquisition is not the only path to U.S. technology capabilities. [73] For example, as The New York Times has documented, a leading Chinese computer-chip maker allegedly paid employees of a Taiwanese chip company working with the U.S. company Micron to steal valuable chip designs.[74]. [68], However, China’s vast and growing market for drugs is likely to make up for that disadvantage. For example, in the high-end equipment manufacturing sector, China maintains a program that conditions the receipt of a subsidy on an enterprise’s use of at least 60-percent Chinese-made components when producing intelligent manufacturing equipment. Facebook [8] The Biopharmaceutical Competitiveness and Investment Survey ranked the United States first among mature markets in 2017, followed by Switzerland, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Regarding China, under the extended purview of CFIUS, the administration should consider blocking more Chinese acquisitions of or investments in U.S. firms involved in the design or production of drugs. [94]. In 2018, one in five North American CEOs reported their companies experienced IP being stolen in China. Many in the science community will argue this goes against the global and open nature of science and scientific inquiry and exchange. [265]. [239]. Dan Prud’homme and Zhang Taolue, “Evaluation of China’s intellectual property regime for innovation” (Report for the World Bank, December 2017), 69–82, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan_Prudhomme/publication/322930089_Evaluation_of_China's_intellectual_property_regime_for_innovation_Summary_Report/links/5a817dc3458515ce6140adc5/Evaluation-of-Chinas-intellectual-property-regime-for-innovation-Summary-Report.pdf. Emma Yasinski, “China Clamps Down on Foreign Use of Chinese Genetic Material and Data,” The Scientist, June 17, 2019, https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/china-clamps-down-on-foreign-use-of-chinese-genetic-material-and-data-66016. [30] However, its share of documents in the top 1 percent of citations is lower than its overall share of articles. [123] (Surprisingly, the U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration, in its document promoting U.S. rail export opportunities to China, has made no mention of the lion’s share of these opportunities coming with forced technology transfer requirements. [155], Torreya, “Creating Value Through China Partnering,” (October 2018). [209]. ); generally limiting government intervention to addressing market and innovation system failures (e.g., support for research, skill development, and related infrastructure, as opposed to production or export subsidies); and ensuring a good regulatory and market environment, including robust protections for IP. As a result, the 2016 State Council plan for the industry proposed to increase the adjustment of corporate organizational structure, promote cross-industry and cross-sector mergers and acquisitions of enterprises. Joe Kennedy, “How to Ensure That America’s Life-Sciences Sector Remains Globally Competitive” (Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2018) ; European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations , “The Pharmaceutical Industry in Figures, Key Data 2017” (EFPIA, 2017), 8, https://www.efpia.eu/media/219735/efpia-pharmafigures2017_statisticbroch_v04-final.pdf. [91]The Rhodium Group reported that over the last 16 years there has been roughly $18 billion of Chinese FDI into ICT and electronics-industry deals, with most of that in just the last few years. However, given Chinese government and China’s business behavior over the last two decades, as well as current policies regarding the industry, there is reason for concern. Fortunately, Chinese inward FDI has dramatically fallen in the last two years, in part because of Chinese government limitations, but also as it became clear the U.S. government would take a harder look at China’s attempts to buy U.S. We are proud of our record for quality, compliance, bioprocessing … The plan called on China to “Form an advanced industrial technology system supporting the development of biotechnology drugs, establish a batch of multi-functional, bio-technical drug production bases in line with international standards, and cultivate a group of enterprises with international competitiveness.”[134] The plan went on to call for: Key technology development: build large-scale and high-throughput genome sequencing technology and equipment, massive biological information processing and analysis technology. In 2016 the State Council issued a circular to promote the application and development of big data in the health and medical sectors, including the construction of national and provincial population health information platforms. [159] In addition, some of the proposed changes are designed to benefit domestic companies over foreign ones. The Chinese government has a unique opportunity to turn over a new leaf and show the world it can innovate while competing fair and square; in this case, with biopharmaceutical innovation. [221], When it comes to biomedical research funding, the Chinese government invests much less overall than the United States. [117]. Hanemann, Huotari, and Kratz, Two-Way Street. This is due in large part to China having expanded its health insurance program nationally in 2009 such that it covers its more than 1.3 billion residents today. For more information, visit us at www.itif.org. Xiaoli Tang et al. BGI was funded in part by local government incentives and, in 2010, a $1.5 billion line of credit from the China Development Bank. It set out the following goals: i) Goals for 2020: Promote a large number of enterprises to achieve drug quality standards and systems that are in line with international standards, among which at least 100 pharmaceutical enterprises obtain U.S., EU, Japanese, and World Health Organization (WHO) authentication and achieve product export; according to international drug standards, develop and promote 10–20 chemical and high-end drugs, 3–5 new traditional Chinese medicines, 3–5 new biotech drugs; complete drug registration in Europe, the United States, and other developed nations; speed up the development of internationalization of domestically produced drugs; before 2020, when international patents for blockbuster drugs expire, achieve over 90% generics production; achieve breakthroughs for 10–15 important core and critical technologies; and begin to establish national drug innovation system and innovation team. [18]. [193] At one level, this is a perfectly legitimate step for the government to take; after all, the U.S. FDA has the right to inspect plants in China when the output is to be imported into the United States. [150]. [68]. Tom Miles, “U.S. Of the 18 companies in the incubator, 9 are from China, most of which are biotech companies. [269]. [266]. [112]. Carl Berrisford, “China’s Biotech Revolution,” 12, (UBS, August 2018), https://www.ubs.com/global/en/wealth-management/chief-investment-office/our-research/discover-more/2018/china-biotech.html. TaiZhou Nikon Medical Material, “Guiding Opinions of the General Office of the State Council on Promoting the Healthy Development of the Pharmaceutical Industry” (November 2016), http://www.nkyycl.com/en/newsshow_7.html. [219] A study from 2013 estimated that clinical trials, which can account for between 40 and 60 percent of the total costs of drug development, can be 67 to 80 percent cheaper than those in Japan or the United States. Between 2009 and 2013, Chinese government funding of medical research through the National Natural Sciences Foundation of China increased by a factor of 4, to $710 million. There are a number of policy changes needed in China, the United States, and globally to boost biopharmaceutical innovation. [201], These firms have also been making venture investments in U.S. biotech firms, and increased from $0.2 billion in 2015 to $2.6 billion in the first 3 quarters of 2018. The impact on U.S. firms is indeterminate, as it is possible they would lose market share from fair Chinese policies. As China’s National Counterintelligence and Security Center stated in its “2018 Foreign Economic Espionage in Cyberspace” report: China has expansive efforts in place to acquire U.S. technology to include sensitive trade secrets and proprietary information. [211]. [163]. KPMG, The 13th Five-Year Plan China’s transformation and integration with the world economy Opportunities for Chinese and foreign businesses, (October 2016). Thilo Hanemann, Daniel H. Rosen, and Cassie Gao, Two-Way Street: 25 Years of US-China Direct Investment (report, US-China FDI Project, Rhodium Group and the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations, in partnership with the American Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai and the China General Chamber of Commerce, 2016), http://rhg.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/TwoWayStreet_FullReport_En.pdf. [237] One way the government has done this is through its Generic Quality Consistency Evaluation, wherein China only allows the first three manufacturers of a particular drug that passes the assessment stage to be granted a license to produce the drug for the following three years. 39.3, and despite the fact that their approval process is usually longer than the U.S. [158] China also recently cracked down on fraudulent drug approval applications by holding them to fraud standards with severe penalties. (United States Trade Representative’s Office, April 2015), 72, https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/2015%20NTE%20Combined.pdf, Stephen Ezell, “China-Induced Global Overcapacity an Increasing Threat to High-Tech Industries,”, https://itif.org/publications/2018/02/27/china-induced-global-overcapacity-increasing-threat-, http://money.cnn.com/2017/07/18/technology/china-us-clean-energy-solar-farm/index.html, https://itif.org/publications/2018/02/06/build-battery-industry-new-york-needs-help-washington, China’s $798B Government Funds Redraw Investment Landscape, Here Are the Largest Funds You Must Know, China’s 2,041 Government Guidance Funds Size Reaches $530B: Report, www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/reports/, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2013-01/06/content_2754.htm, http://www2.itif.org/2012-enough-enough-chinese-mercantilism.pdf?_ga=2.167984545.1231214984.1547477774-1559993869.1449863882, https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2018/02/a-look-at-drug-spending-in-the-us, https://www.uschina.org/local-made-china-2025-, https://howtobehealthyforme.wordpress.com/2018/09/27/national-policy-on-health-industry/, http://www.bioworld.com/content/china-channels-its-resources-expand-biopharmaceutical-sector-10-year-plan, https://conference.druid.dk/acc_papers/kaybnoc27d8hpbb3p84bpxp5dm8pvg.pdf, https://ispe.org/pharmaceutical-engineering/ispeak/biopharma-revolution-comes-boston, https://themedicinemaker.com/manufacture/make-china-great-again, https://www.biocentury.com/interactive/whitepaper/building-bridges-innovation-2018, https://www.mercatus.org/bridge/commentary/how-chinas-drug-approval-agency-outpacing-international-counterparts, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-00542-3, https://www.trade.gov/topmarkets/pdf/Pharmaceuticals_China.pdf, Stephan Booshart, Thomas Luedi, and Emma Wang, “Past lessons for China’s new joint ventures,” McKinsey & Company, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/past-lessons-for-chinas-new-joint-ventures, https://www.lek.com/sites/default/files/insights/pdf-attachments/Chinas-Healthcare-Innovation-by-Made-in-China-2025-and-Implications-for-MNCs_JUL06.pdf, https://finfeed.com/small-caps/biotech/genetic-technologies-benefits-healthy-china-policy/, https://decisionresourcesgroup.com/blog/china-47-equals-quality-generic-medicines-affordable-costs/, https://www.statnews.com/2019/04/15/jiankui-embryo-editing-ccr5/, https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/trump-administration-imposes-new-restrictions-on-fetal-tissue-research/2019/06/05/b13433c0-8709-11e9-a491-25df61c78dc4_story.html, https://themedicinemaker.com/fileadmin/user_upload/TMM_0718.pdf, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/lfzt/rlyw/node_35674.htm, https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/factsheets/2012/december/23rd-JCCT, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/transcripts/March%20Transcript.pdf, https://www.iam-media.com/law-policy/china-seems-have-abandoned-patent-linkage-plans, https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvals-and-databases/approved-drug-products-therapeutic-equivalence-evaluations-orange-book, https://www.iam-media.com/law-policy/reverse-patent-trolls-plague-big-pharma-in-china, http://www.chinaipmagazine.com/en/news-show.asp?id=10390, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan_Prudhomme/publication/322930089_Evaluation_of_China's_intellectual_property_regime_for_innovation_Summary_Report/links/5a817dc3458515ce6140adc5/Evaluation-of-Chinas-intellectual-property-regime-for-innovation-Summary-Report.pdf, https://www.bio.org/sites/default/files/BIO_2019%20Special%20301_Review_Comment.pdf, https://www.economist.com/business/2018/07/05/chinas-new-15bn-tech-fund-emulates-softbanks-vision-fund, https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2017/10/31/chinas-798b-government-funds-redraw-investment-landscape-largest-funds-must-know, https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/china-government-fund-ranking, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-subsidies/u-s-sends-70-questions-to-wto-about-chinas-subsidies-idUSKCN1PO1HN. National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, website accessed August 5, 2019, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/lfzt/rlyw/node_35674.htm. ASH Clinical News, “Scientists Depart MD Anderson and Emory Over Undisclosed Ties to China,” (May 2019), https://www.ashclinicalnews.org/news/citing-theft-research-china-md-anderson-dismisses-three-scientists/. In the 2000s, more new chemical entities were developed and approved by regulatory authorities in the United States than in the next five nations—Switzerland, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France—combined. It will also shorten the time it takes to issue a drug import license. Maria Dahl, “What’s Driving China’s Impressive Level of Biotech Innovation,” AstraZeneca, June 6, 2019, https://www.astrazeneca.com/what-science-can-do/labtalk-blog/oncology/whats-driving-chinas-impressive-level-of-biotech-innovation-06062019.html. Cornelia Zou, “China channels its resources to expand biopharmaceutical sector in 10-year plan,” BioWorld, http://www.bioworld.com/content/china-channels-its-resources-expand-biopharmaceutical-sector-10-year-plan. We will steadily promote the pilot application of non-grain fuel ethanol, carry out industrialized demonstration of biodiesel in an orderly manner, and start the commercial application of aviation biofuels in a timely manner on the basis of completing aviation biofuel verification flights. [69]. [216] In addition, with the rise of Chinese biotech companies, top talent from foreign firms in China is moving to Chinese firms, thereby making it more attractive for foreign talent to move home. M Therefore, even if firms in China sell at a lower price than firms in the United States, Chinese biopharma companies could still earn greater revenues and profits than U.S. firms—profits they can reinvest back into the next round of innovation. European Commission and World Health Organization, “China policies to promote local production of pharmaceutical products and protect public health” (WHO, 2017), 16, https://www.who.int/phi/publications/china_policies_promote_local_production_pharm/en/; China’s Pursuit of Next Frontier Tech: Computing, Robotics, and Biotechnology, Before the US. In the life-sciences sector, this was complemented by the 1986 introduction of the orphan drug tax credit, which allows drug manufacturers to claim a tax credit on research costs for orphan drugs (i.e., drugs for rare diseases affecting 200,000 or fewer U.S. patients). According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), of 535 of Chinese facilities subject to FDA monitoring, as many as 243 were not inspected between 2010 and 2016. Notwithstanding this liberalization, China has a long way to go. Many of these challenges come from domestic Chinese generics companies. [224]. [226] Moreover, the Chinese government has made the generation and sharing of medical data a top priority. [162]. [145], Finally, the update to China’s Strategic and Emerging Industries plan, the Strategic Emerging Industry Development Key Product and Service Catalogue, first published in September 2018, also targets the life sciences. Resolving this issue is important because it can influence what the U.S. and global response to China’s strategy and tactics should be. [238]. [26] Notwithstanding this, China accounts for just 1.8 percent of global government funding for medical research, compared with the United States’ 44.2 percent. [268] Eighty-eight percent of products seized by the U.S. Customs and Border patrol for IP violations in 2016 were from China or Hong Kong, and 8 percent involved pharmaceuticals and personal-care products. [85], Weak IP Enforcement: Weak enforcement of IP law is another vector. “Chinese Investment Floods US Biotech Pharmaceutical Start-Ups are Raising Money at a Breakneck Pace,” The Gazette, April 21, 2018, https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/nation-and-world/chinese-investment-floods-us-biotech-20180421. 11, no. Because Chinese firms would gain global market share, U.S. biopharma firms and their workers would be hurt because they would lose market share to Chinese firms through unfair competition. The Chinese government also provides an array of incentives and supports, including research grants, for biopharma firms. [215] A reason some have returned is new regulations allowing research professors to hold positions at private companies. [11], The United States leads the world in life-sciences innovation. [7]Pankaj Ghemawat, with Stephen A. Altman, “DHL Global Connectedness Index: 2012,” (DHL, 2012), 49, www.dhl.com/content/dam/flash/g0/gci_2012/.../dhl_gci_2012_complete_study.pdf. Anna Thorsen “Why is China Investing so Much in Europe?” Valuer, February 12, 2019, https://valuer.ai/blog/why-is-china-investing-so-much-in-europe/. [75]. Once firms have the technology, competencies, and scale to go global, the government often subsidizes global market expansion, such as through the China Export-Import Bank (an entity the World Bank has funded) and China’s Export and Credit Insurance Corporation (Sinosure). Gryphon Scientific and Rhodium Group, “China’s Biotechnology Development,” 67. G Recognized as the world’s leading science and technology think tanks, ITIF’s mission is to formulate and promote policy solutions that accelerate innovation and boost productivity to spur growth, opportunity, and progress. Adam Houldsworth, “China’s Patent Linkage Plan in Serious Doubt,” iam, December 17, 2018, https://www.iam-media.com/law-policy/china-seems-have-abandoned-patent-linkage-plans, [183]. [92] Of the $14.2 billion invested in ICT, 74 percent was made from 2014 to 2016, with more than 95 percent going to acquisitions. [60]. [113] In 2012, 23 percent of the value of all FDI projects was from joint ventures. OECD, stats.oecd.org (accessed February 12, 2015). Compared to the United States and Europe, China’s IP environment for drug development has been decidedly weaker. [177]. D Should U.S. policymakers decide it is in the U.S. national interest to have a globally leading life-sciences industry, they will need to respond appropriately, particularly ensuring U.S. policies, including drug-pricing policies, support industry investment in research and development (R&D) and innovation. Pan Yue, “China’s $798B Government Funds Redraw Investment Landscape, Here Are the Largest Funds You Must Know,” China Money Network, October 31, 2017; Sophy Yang, “China’s 2,041 Government Guidance Funds Size Reaches $530B: Report,” China Money Network, November 12, 2018. [139]. [20]. America’s wresting of global life-sciences leadership has been no accident, but rather the result of a series of intentional policy decisions designed to make America the world’s preeminent location for life-sciences research, product commercialization, and production. [216]. [234]. Or it could lead China to double down on the latter policies, especially if it seeks to gain competitive advantage through low prices. For example, China is investing in U.S. universities in order to gain access to their research, often with the backing of U.S. state governments. [275] Congress and the FDA should continue to improve and streamline, wherever possible, the drug approval process, keeping in place existing safety and efficacy standards. [255]. Monique Ellis, “Top 10 Locations for Life Science Jobs in the World,” ProClinical Life Sciences Recruitment Blog, April 10, 2017, https://blog.proclinical.com/top-10-locations-for-life-science-jobs-in-the-world. All regions should formulate specific implementation plans based on actual conditions, carefully organize and implement them to ensure that all tasks are implemented. [24]. The 2016 State Council Document on the industry stated, “In principle, government procurement projects must purchase domestically produced products and gradually improve the level of domestic equipment configuration of public medical institutions.”[253] Some argue that China uses the drug import license as an industrial policy tool, limiting imports in order to give domestic firms a respite from foreign competition. International Trade Administration, “2016 Top Markets Report Pharmaceuticals Country Case Study,” 3, https://www.trade.gov/topmarkets/pdf/Pharmaceuticals_China.pdf. Biotechnology and pharmaceuticals patents issued to Chinese companies are only 4.1 and 4.6 percent, respectively, of the patents granted to U.S. companies. This involves direct and indirect subsidies, and designing markets protected from foreign competition so the Chinese firms can accumulate capital. Its 2006 report, “The Guidelines for the Implementation of the National Medium- and Long-term Program for Science and Technology Development (2006–2020)” called on China to master “core technologies” including “major new drugs.” China’s 11th Five-Year Plan listed sixteen “megaprojects,” three of which addressed the industry: 1) breeding new varieties of genetically modified organisms; 2) pharmaceutical innovation and development; and 3) control and treatment of AIDS, hepatitis, and other major diseases.

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