memory transplant in humans

[e] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. [146][149] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. The trilogy of Mary Renault consisting of "Fire from Heaven", "The Persian Boy" and "Funeral Games". [11] Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander. [208] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,[150] in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,[209][210] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché. Biologists successfully ‘transfer’ a memory from one snail to another. It included: The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. [275] Caligula, who could not swim,[276] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. Now that they have evidence of offline replay in sleeping humans, the next step for the scientists is figuring out how it ties into memory consolidation. Accessibility "[243] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. It remains unclear whether B cell repertoires against coronaviruses and other pathogens differ between adults and children and how important these distinctions are. 5-min read. [194], Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. Alexander immediately headed south. Firstly, while A. californica is widely used to study neurological processes because of the way their neurons are similar to ours, what we observe in animal models can't always be applied to humans.. And it's possible that the RNA is transferring some other process, not necessarily memory. [159], Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire. Tweet. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. [13] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. [32] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. "[119] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. [289] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. [17], This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. “Post-transplant immune reconstitution of naïve B cells and B cell precursors was more rapid than the reconstitution of naïve T cells and thymic T cell precursors,” the authors summarized. [275], The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. He used his authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project, which involved him assuming the leadership position to all the Greeks in their conquest of Persia.[4][5]. Personality changes following heart transplantation, which have been reported for decades, include accounts of recipients acquiring the personality characteristics of their donor. … When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. [178], Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. [287], In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. A member of the Argead dynasty, he was born in Pella—a city in Ancient Greece—in 356 BC. They are then asked to recall these words immediately after presentation and again after a 30 minute delay, to assess immediate or short-term verbal memory and long-term verbal memory, respectively. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. The University of California is deeply grateful to Gov. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes. Researchers hope faecal transplantation might one day be used to combat cognitive decline. [163][165] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. Privacy, Help [268][269], Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero. [222][223] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. The ability of memory B cells to produce complex antibody responses against an infection nine decades after exposure speaks to their durability. (Posed by a model, Getty Images) Faecal transplants may one day help … In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. [13] According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. Four categories of personality changes are discussed in this article: (1) changes in preferences, (2) alterations in emo … [65] Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. [61] While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. [152] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. [96], Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Robust chimerism was found in naïve B cells and B cell precursors, but not in memory T cells. [110] It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Pretransplant rejection prevention. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. [270], After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great. [290] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 19. Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. According to the Centers for Disease Control, the total combined rates for TBI-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths have increased in the decade 2001–2010. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. Still, any first attempt at a whole-eye transplant in humans remains years away, the experts cautioned. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. The proposed novel design integrates a built-in replaceable drug reservoir within the pump package forming a self-contained preloaded capsule pump with an overall pump volume of 424.7 μL. Pretransplant rejection prevention. Richard Marais (Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, UK) finds that circulating cell-free DNA is a surrogate marker of tumour burden in patients with metastatic melanoma. [187] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. [111], When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time. [289], The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. The pianist then develops an urge to kill. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns. [160] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. [91] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Tarsos mint. [86] Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. [76] In a study of 17 healthy volunteers who underwent brain imaging, uridine supplements increased their brain levels of phosphoethanolamine (PEtn), an important phospholipid building block [ 7 ]. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish. Posted on Tuesday, 15 May, 2018 | 6 comments. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, like the other types of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, is a rapidly progressing, always fatal neurological disorder. [297] During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. [17], Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. [249] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[254]. [273] As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. [272], In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. [176], Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Case Study: Longitudinal immune profiling of a SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in a solid organ transplant recipient . Memory T cells are only found in one location and do not circulate. [123] Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. [186], Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. Greek biographer Plutarch (c.  45 – c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as: The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. [50] Alexander's relationship with his father "forged" the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Struck under Balakros or Menes, circa 333-327 BC", "Images of Authority II: The Greek Example", Alexander: Selected Texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch, The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature, "World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. Complex roles of cigarette smoke have resulted in numerous diseases, including cardiovascular, respiratory and autoimmune diseases, allergies, cancers and transplant rejection etc. Take a look and find the cover that suits you and your fellow travellers. When questioned on whether this may lead to the possibility of a memory transplant in humans, however, Prof Glanzman was uncertain. The research is published in the journal eNeuro. [144] He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. [190], When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. [82] He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. [22], During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III. [126], East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Donor-specific antibodies have become an established biomarker predicting antibody-mediated rejection. [40] During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir. Immune response is a way our bodies are protected against pathogens like bacteria and viruses. The effect of post-learning presentation of music on long-term word-list retention. [17] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. Takebe, T. et al. [255] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. 31.—IONIA", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), MIMAS", "The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting", "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_the_Great&oldid=1025297617, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Short description is different from Wikidata, Pages using sidebar with the child parameter, Articles containing Persian-language text, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Wikipedia articles with BALaT identifiers, Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with TePapa identifiers, Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the, Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities (", Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the, "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 26 May 2021, at 20:20. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism. [42] Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. [45], In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. [ … Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. In humans, CD69 + memory T cells from various tissues demonstrated a conserved transcriptional profile similar to that observed in Trm from mice and distinct from that observed in memory T-cell subsets in peripheral blood [45, 47]. Image Credit: CC BY-SA 3.0 Grzegorz Polak. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. [135] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. [229] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. [42] He continued to Illyria,[42] where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. [295] In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden is indicative. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. His father Philip was assassinated in 336 BC at his sister's wedding, and Alexander assumed the throne to the Kingdom of Macedon. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus. Antibody-mediated rejection is the leading cause of graft loss after kidney transplant. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20. [98] The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion. In a potentially groundbreaking experiment, memories were successfully transferred from one snail to another. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart. pp. [93] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. [163][164] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever". [196] Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros. [234] Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy. [144], Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[147] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. [42] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. [191] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. [179] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. [107] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Research finding hints at the possibility of new treatments to restore lost memories Despite their success over hundreds of years, ethical, moral and social concerns remain regarding organ transplants and their impact on both donors and receivers. Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46. Read the latest medical research on causes, symptoms and new treatments for bipolar disorder. [291] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, achieving an important victory over King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! 2003;196:65–74. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. [287] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. [70] Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander. [240], The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. attempt". [283] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. [288] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه‎ Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. TBI continues to plague millions of individuals around the world on an annual basis. Benefits and Challenges of Organ Transplants Organ Transplants Abstract Since the first successful organ transplants in the 1950s after over 200 years of transplant history, countless lives have been saved. Left to fight alone, they were defeated. [189] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). [69][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. The results show younger mice don’t display significant changes in terms of anxiety or behavior. The Doctor after his first confrontation with "Grendel" The Doctor was sent on his first away mission by Janeway, tasked with rescuing Kim, Tuvok, and Chakotay from a Beowulf holoprogram that had been invaded by a mysterious alien. But the disease is very rare: It affects about one person in every one million per year worldwide; in the United States there are about 350 cases per year. [273], Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. [74], In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. [114] Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. ", "Alexander the Great poisoned by the River Styx", "Alexander the Great and West Nile Virus Encephalitis", "The Location of the Tomb: Facts and Speculation", "The Aftermath: The Burial of Alexander the Great", "Greeks captivated by Alexander-era tomb at Amphipolis", "Archaeologist claims opulent grave in Greece honored Alexander the Great's best friend", "Hephaestion's Monogram Found at Amphipolis Tomb", "Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, Ἀλέξανδρος", "Plutarch, De Alexandri magni fortuna aut virtute, chapter 2, section 4", "CNG: eAuction 430. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[92] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. A faecal transplant from a young person to an elderly individual may one day reverse the cognitive decline that naturally occurs with age, according to scientists. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), also known as the coronavirus, or COVID, is a contagious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). [17] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus. [255] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[258] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. We’re really wired to be monotaskers, meaning that our brains can only focus on one task at a time, says neuropsychologist Cynthia Kubu, … This included tissue typing, methods of preserving the organ outside of the body, and ways of allowing donor organs to be transported and shared. [18] Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". [281][282], Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. [64][66], After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn (Greek: ἡγεμών) of a league which according to Diodorus was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. [16] Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos.

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